Employee Motivational Theories and Concepts Essay Example for Free

Employee Motivational Theories and Concepts Essay Numerous theories on the subject of employee motivation have been developed and published for the better part of this century. While early employers thought of their workers as just another input into the production of goods and services (Lindner, 1998), employees were becoming increasingly dissatisfied with working conditions and malevolent management. As post-war, labor tensions mounted in the 1920s, employers needed to change their approach to employee relations if they were to avoid costly, and sometimes violent, labor strikes. Early motivational theories set the foundation for the development of 20th century concepts, including the move to get â€Å"Googled† and motivational techniques based on business strengths found in the corporate toolbox. Early Motivational Theories George Elton Mayo, an Australian-born psychologist and Harvard Professor, began significant research in 1927 in an attempt to demonstrate that employees, if appropriately motivated, are more productive and can achieve greater return through appropriate human relationship management techniques (Trahair Zaleznik, 2005). This research, referred to as the â€Å"Hawthorne Studies,† found that employees are not only motivated by financial gain, but also by the behavior and attitude of their supervisors. During these studies, the employees responded positively to the mere fact that they were receiving attention from their supervisor as a result of the experiment. In his article, Gordon Marshall (1998) noted that â€Å"the term ‘Hawthorne effect’ is now widely used to refer to the behavior-modifying effects of being the subject of social investigation, regardless of the context of the investigation. More generally, the researchers concluded that supervisory style greatly affected worker productivity† (para. 1) and that â€Å"enhanced productivity therefore depends on management sensitivity to, and manipulation of, the ‘human relations’ of production† (para. 2). This represented a dramatic paradigm shift for employers and theorists alike. Subsequent to the conclusion of the infamous Hawthorne Studies, five primary motivational theories have developed that have increased the understanding of what truly motivates employees. They are Maslow’s need-hierarchy, Hertzberg’s two-factor system, Vroom’s expectancy theory, Adam’s equity theory, and Skinner’s reinforcement theory. Maslow identified that employees, in general, have five primary levels of needs that include psychological (e.g. air, food, shelter), safety (e.g. security, order, stability), belongingness (e.g. love, family, relationships), esteem (e.g. achievement, status, responsibility), and self-actualization (McLeod, 2007). Maslow further noted that, in order to provide motivation, the lower levels would need to be satisfied before one progressed to the higher levels. Hertzberg classified motivation into two, distinct factors. He believed that intrinsic factors (or motivators) produce job satisfaction through achievement and recognition while extrinsic (or hygiene) factors produce dissatisfaction. He identified extrinsic factors to be associated with compensation and perceived job security, or lack thereof. Vroom theorized that demonstrated effort would lead to performance which, in turn, would lead to reward (either positive or negative). The more positive the reward the more highly motivated the employee would be. To the contrary, negative rewards would result in a lesser motivated employee. Adams found that employees want to ensure that there is a sense of fairness and equity between themselves and their co-workers. He believed that equity is achieved when employees are contributing, in terms of input and output, at the same rate. Skinner’s theory was likely the most simplistic, He established that employees will repeat behaviors that lead to positive outcomes and eliminate or minimize behaviors that lead to negative outcomes. He conceived that, if managers positively reinforce desired behavior, it would lead to positive outcomes and that managers should negatively reinforce employee behavior that leads to negative outcomes (Lindner, 1998). James R. Lindner, Professor of Management and Research at Ohio State University, has conducted extensive research on this topic. In his paper â€Å"Understanding Employee Motivation,† he further extrapolated on the five theories, providing a comparative analysis, and offering a summary definition that focuses on the psychological process and â€Å"inner force† associated with the accomplishment of personal and organizational goals (Lindner, 1998). 20th Century Concepts In addition to studying popular theories associated with employee motivation, Lindner (1998) includes the methodology and outcomes of an independent study, conducted at Ohio State University, that sought to rank the importance of ten motivating factors. The results of this study were compelling; with â€Å"interesting work† ranking as number one over other more commonly identified motivators, such as wages and job security. In comparing these results with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, among others, he found that the results are mixed, with the highest ranked factor (interesting work) being one of self-actualization and contrary to Maslow’s findings (Lindner, 1998). This presents a divergent result that challenges Maslow’s assumption that the lower needs must be satisfied before a person can achieve their potential and self-actualize (McLeod, 2007, para.16). This does not negate Maslow’s work, but rather demonstrates that a natural evolution may have taken place with the modern workforce due to the progression of motivation strategies. This is a credit to the work of early theorists, and a call to arms for those that continue this research. Get Googled But history has yet to definitively answer the question, â€Å"what is the best method(s) to motivate employees?† The imprecise answer continues to be: it depends. Many successful organizations incorporate a variety of programs aimed at motivating their employees, based on their specific population. Google Inc., for example, is leading the way to restructure management so that employees can streamline creative ideas that produce blockbuster new products. They are rewarding employees with perks like onsite swimming pools, allowing employees to bring their pets to work, providing onsite child care, and all the free food employees want (â€Å"How Google Inc. Rewards Its Employees,† 2010, Thinking Leaders, para.1). While this may not be realistic for every organization, there is something to be said about the fact that Google, Inc. is consistently ranked by Fortune magazine as the best place in the U.S. to work. However there are things that a company can do to motivate their employees that are low or no cost and likely already exist in their corporate toolbox. The Corporate Toolbox Most successful organizations pride themselves on their ability to promote their product or service to achieve the desired level of profitability. They develop strategic plans, set production goals and persuade their customers that they are best of the best in their field. They are advertisers and peddlers of wares. So what does this have to do with motivation? Robert Hershey, Director of James E. Rogers College of Law at the University of Arizona and contributing author to the Journal of Managerial Psychology, contends that there is a significant correlation between an organization’s ability to successfully promote their business and thrive at motivating their employees. He notes that â€Å"we do not need one more theory of motivation; we need better insight into the psychology of advertising. We can take some tried-and-true product advertising techniques that have been found to be effective and use them in a human resources and management context. But before we do that, the point must be made that, as a practical matter, our vocabulary and attention require a shift from the motivation jargon of needs, expectancy, two-factor theories, etc., to an emphasis on communications practices, because persuasion requires the transmission of information† (Hershey, 1993). If Hershey is correct, then an emphasis on communication and inclusion would create an environment ripe for employee motivation. One could also argue that, if communication is key, allowing input and empowered decision making is the next logical step to producing a motivated employee. Carolyn Wiley, Professor of Business at Roosevelt University, concurs with this notion and provides the following supporting statements in her article â€Å"Creating an Environment for Employee Motivation†: When employees have an opportunity to provide input, this increases their survival rate and their sense of commitment. In many very small companies, a natural sense of owners hip often develops among the employees. However, as companies grow, feelings of ownership and commitment start to decline. To increase commitment as the organization grows, managers must change how they define who retains control. Shared decision making is essential both to company success and employee survival. Workers generally do not resist their own ideas and decisions. Rather, they are motivated to fulfill them. (Wiley, 1992, para.14) While this may seem threatening to traditional leaders, it should not be viewed as surrendering control. Employees that are empowered through inclusion are ambassadors for organizational success. It is only through mutual success that both the employee and company thrive. It seems so simple, but eludes even the most progressive of companies. Most organizations are more inclined to spend thousands of dollars creating recognition programs, building home office environments, developing bonus structures and hosting employee appreciation events rather than recognizing that most employees are merely looking to be valued. The same attention that motivated the Hawthorne workers applies to the modern employee who just wants to contribute and receive credit for their effort. Conclusion There is certainly compelling evidence to indicate that employee motivation comes in many forms. Whether one places their belief in the theoretical assumptions of a Maslow or Hertzberg, their financial backing in the creation of a Google-esque environment, or capitalize on their organizational strengths to communicate and persuade, there is clear agreement that the ability to successfully motivate employees is essential for corporate success and sustainability. The concept of positive human relation management has finally taken its place at the forefront of organizational strategies and, with it, the evolution of employee motivation. References Trahair, R. Zaleznik, A. (2005). Elton Mayo: The Humanist Temper. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers Marshall, G. (1998). A Dictionary of Sociology; Hawthorne Studies. Retrieved from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O88-Hawthornestudies.html Lindner, James R. (1998). Journal of Extension; Understanding Employee Motivation. Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/rb3.php McLeod, S. A. (2007). Simply Psychology; Maslow Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html How Google Inc. rewards its employees. (2010). Retrieved from Thinking Leaders website: http://www.thinkingleaders.com/archives/517 Hershey, R. (1993). A practitioner’s view of motivation. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 8(3), 10-10. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.arbor.edu:80/login?url=http://search.proquest. com/docview/ 215865845?accountid=13998 Wiley, C. (1992). Create an environment for employee motivation. HR Focus, 69(6), 14-14. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.arbor.edu:80/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/ docview/206781828?ac countid=13998

Wind Power - Harnessing the Power of Nature Essay -- Exploratory Essay

  Abstract:   Wind power is an up and coming form of energy production in the United States and on the world stage.   Wind energy production is the process of harnessing the power of the natural world for the benefit of humans.   It has developed from incipient stages in tenth century Persia to highly sophisticated systems which take advantage of modern knowledge of physics and environmental science to maximize energy potential.   Many challenges to its success exist, including public apathy, governmental disinterest, and environmental hazards, but on the whole it is among the cleanest and most promising means of producing electricity.   Without understanding wind power, one cannot hope to adequately comprehend the future of energy.       Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wind power is among the fastest growing and least polluting forms of energy available today.   The recent rise of public interest in renewable energy over the past few years has inspired an explosive twenty-five percent growth per year in the wind industry.   Though wind power currently provides just one percent of the world’s energy, it is for the most part an untapped resource.   Estimates place its potential for energy production at twenty percent of the world’s total needs.   In short, wind power is going places, and it is important that scientists and citizens keep up.   (Botkin and Keller, 357)    History   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wind power originated under the most practical of circumstances:   the need to crush grain for flour.   Originally a labor-intensive process of hand pressing between stones, the challenge to find a better way to mill flour soon engaged the human imagination.   This led to hand cranks, horse- drawn axles, and eventually watermill... ... Wind Power and Other Energy Options.   Ann Arbor, Michigan:   The University  of Michigan Press, 1978.    National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL).   â€Å"Clean Energy Basics:   Introduction to Wind Energy.†Ã‚   2003.   27 April 2003.   clean_energy/wind.html>    Righter, Robert.   Wind Energy in America.   Norman, Oklahoma:   University of Oklahoma Press, 1996.    Tse, Lawrence, and Duane Bong.   â€Å"Environmental Impact of Wind Turbines.†Ã‚   Vision Engineer.com.   2003.   29 April 2003.   www.visionengineer.com/env/wind environmental_impact.shtml>    United States Department of Energy.   â€Å"Wind Energy Program.†Ã‚   2001.   28 April 2003.  Ã‚      Union of Concerned Scientists.   â€Å"Bush Budget Slashes Funds for Renewable Energy Sources.†Ã‚   News.   2003.   29 April 2003.   www.ucsusa.org/news.cfm?newsID=328>

The Go-Between

The Go-Between Essay †The Go-Between† is a short story written by Ali Smith in 2009. The story was written for a collection of short stories written to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the United Nations’ adoption of the universal declaration of human rights. The writer found inspiration in article 13, which describes the right to freedom of movement. The story follows the 33-year-old former microbiologist who gives us a direct insight into what it means to be African refugees on the border between Morocco and Spain. â€Å"I was a microbiologist, before. † (Page 3, line 32-33)The narrator is even, for some reason, fled his native Cameroon, and has on several occasions tried to flee across the border to Europe. None of his attempt is successful, and they have cost him part of his ear and a finger. He explains in detail about how flight tests were done and what treatment he has received from the authorities. The narrator has abandoned himself to escape and ha ve now settled in the Spanish city of Ceuta, located in Morocco. Here he lives in a small room with three others, where he works as a guide (Go-between) for newly arrived refugees.He establishes contact between aid organization doctors and refugees. He speaks several languages and can put the switch in position. â€Å"The French doctors can be Italian, Spanish, French, English, for instance. I speak these, and also some others. † (Page 2, line 31-32) The novel provides a powerful insight into the miserable and tragically conditions refugees in North Africa. The story is told through a first person narrator, who tells the story in the past tense. The narrator seems to be at a distance of the actions he describes.The narrator is authoritarian by virtue of the fact that he is anticipating the events of the story. Given the fact that the story is told by a first person narrator, there is only one point of view. Obviously we are dealing with an inner point of view; the events are being viewed with inner sight from the narrator's point of view. We are only told about the narrator's own thoughts and what he feels and senses. As mentioned, the narrator has several times attempted to flee to Europe, but all the experiments have failed, and he has every time been sent back.The first time the narrator is trying to reach Europe, his ladder number two breaks, and he gets caught out in nowhere between the two fences that separates Europe and Africa. Here he lives for six weeks, with the help of the workers who are about to put the fence up. Finally prisoners police him and send him back to Africa. The second time the narrator, along with 500 other refugees, tries to jump over the two fences that separate them from Europe. During the trial he, loses a part of his ear, then they all get caught and sent back to Africa.Before repatriation, they are chased by dogs, beaten with sticks and shot at. They are not officially recorded, as is supposed, but are simply sent back to Africa. The third and fourth escape attempt takes place in the water, but the narrator gets picked up by patrols boats both times. One of those times he loses a finger on one of the barbed wire fence that is set up under water. After the many unsuccessful escape attempts, the narrator helps the African refugees who arrive from Ceuta. â€Å"†¦ I help the French doctors. Borders are not always visible!I can go between people and places. I can go to the bits of the city they can’t, or the buildings they can’t, or the people they don’t know about, or the people who don’t wish to be seen. I can take them with me; I can tell the people its okay. † (Page 2, line 39-42) The writer uses an unusual writing style in his short story, which starts in medias res with a question; â€Å"You know what Spain is? † (Page 1, line 1) That the story starts in medias res means that there is no introduction or opening, and the reader is not presented to the situation, persons or setting of the story.So you don't know what has happened in advance of the situation you are presented to. The most conspicuous feature in the story in terms of writing style is the fact that it is written like if the narrator is talking to somebody. That we can tell by the questions, the informal, the casual language and the missing questions marks. It is almost like you are reading a part of a conversation between the narrator and someone else. We are only introduced to the narrator, which makes him the main character.The only things we know about him is his former work and his physique. As mentioned before, he is a educated man who speaks several languages. He does also quote the scientist Van Leeuwenhoeck. We are told that he is 33 years old, and in the end of the story he describes himself as a slight man. â€Å"I’m a small, slight man. I’m not a big man. I’m lean and slight. My stature is slight. My coat is a bit too slight – here comes the winter. † (Page 4, line 120-121) The story seems to be critical of the problems concerning freedom of movement in the world.We’ve been given an insight in a world where freedom of movements is non-existent. To show this, Ali Smith uses irony as a very effective way of calling people’s attention to the problem, which he is perfectly illustrating through the short story. He wants to draw people’s attention to the fact that the human right are not fulfilled, and that politicians all over the world has to look at this problem, because the people who are supposed to register the refugees apparently don’t know how to do their job.The refugees are injured, humiliated and chased, â€Å"†¦ with dogs, sticks, electric shock sticks and gun†¦ † (Page 1, line 23-24) The short story can be seen as a wake-up call to the world. Instead of celebrating the anniversary, action should be taken. â€Å"Now it the time to actually fulfil the rights we have given people and not just be satisfied with the ways things are functioning at the moment. † – Ali Smith

Cognitive Learning - Educational Psychology - 1074 Words

Abstract Cognitive psychology has long been an integral part of psychology. It has a direct impact on how educator’s look to improve the teaching and learning process. (Huitt 2006) Much research is done on how we process information. There have been numerous models created to help illustrate this process. Metacognition is also important to educators in it allows a learner to judge how well they are learning a particular subject. There are many ways that we process information. Theorists have developed models of information processing. These models are a cornerstone for education. They provide teachers with understanding of how their students retain the subject matter they are being taught. Metacognition is also important in†¦show more content†¦Such as making up a sentence or word using the first letters of the words in a list, i.e. Kids Prefer Cheese Over Fried Green Spinach (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species) or HOMES (Lake Huron, Lake Ontario, L ake Michigan, Lake Erie, Lake Superior). A teacher should always review previous lesson to ensure that the students are processing the information. This can be done by incorporating information from previous lessons in new lessons or repeating important information in a variety of ways. (Huitt 2003) Metacognition is described by David Meichenbaum and his colleagues â€Å"as people’s awareness of their own cognitive machinery and how the machinery works.† (Woolfolk 2007) This can also be defined as â€Å"knowledge about knowing and learning.† (Woolfolk 2007) Metacognition is the application of the three types of knowledge discussed previously: declarative, procedural, and conditional. There are three skills that are used in metacognition: planning, monitoring, and evaluating. Planning determines how much time will be spent on a task, what methods to use, what resources are needed, organization, what needs focused attention, etc. Monitoring is checking wi th yourself to see how you are doing. Ask yourself if it makes sense or have I studied enough. Evaluating is a judgment of the outcome. Metacognition is usually not required for tasks that are routine, but is very helpful when tasks areShow MoreRelatedEssay on Educational Psychology1169 Words   |  5 Pagespopular areas of psychology is Educational Psychology. Educational Psychology can be explained several ways. The idea is to study theories and concepts from different parts of psychology and apply them in educational settings. These educational settings may occur in different school settings such as preschool. The goal of educational psychology is to create a positive student-teacher relationship. Educational psychology uses five different types of psychology, behavioral, cognitive, developmental,Read MoreMy Paper On Is Educational Psychology1545 Words   |  7 Pages The topic pertinent to psychology that i chose to do my paper on is educational psychology. Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn and retain knowledge, primarily in educational settings like classrooms. This branch not only involves just the learning process of early childhood and adolescence but it also involves the social, emotional, and cognitive learning processes that are involved in humans throughout their entire lifespan. Educational psychology combines numerous amountsRead MorePsychology : Theory Of Psychology1637 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction to Psychology Module 1. Explain how a person committed to each of the following contemporary perspectives would explain human aggression. a. Psychodynamic: A person committed to psychodynamics would see that human functions are based on the interaction of drives and forces within the unconscious mind of a person. This influences different structures of the personality of the person as well. In addition, a person that is committed to psychodynamics would believe that the fundamentalRead MoreJerome Seymour Bruner Essay1350 Words   |  6 PagesSeymour Bruner is an American psychologist who made signification contributions to educational, cognitive and developmental psychology. This paper will focus on who Bruner is, his main theories explained, plus a comparison between Bruner and Piaget and the effectiveness of Bruners theories in the classroom. Bruner was born and raised in New York City, Bruner graduated high school in 1933 and went on to major in psychology at Duke University; earning an AB degree in 1937. Subsequently, Bruner pursuedRead MoreThe Field Of Educational Psychology856 Words   |  4 PagesSnowman, Jack (1997) defined educational psychology as a branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning. The study of learning processes, from both cognitive and behavioral perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence, cognitive development, affect, motivation, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their role in learning. The field of educational psychology relies heavily on quantitative methods, including testing and measurementRead MoreEducational Psychology : a Tool for Effective Teaching1583 Words   |  7 PagesSummary Santrock Chapter 1â€Å"Educational Psychology : A Tool for Effective Teaching† Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental process. Educational Psychology is the branch of psychology that specializes in understanding teaching and learning in educational settings. Historical Background The field of educational psychology was founded by several pioneers in psychology in the late ninteenth century just before the start of the twentieth century. Three pioneers – Wiliam James, JohnRead MoreWgu Fht Task 11675 Words   |  7 PagesDevelopment and Learning - FHT4 Western Governors University Student ID 259630 FHT4 - Task 1 Cognitive Development refers to the construction of the thought process that includes problem solving, remembering and the ability to make decisions, from childhood up to the adulthood stage. Cognitive/Intellectual Development is the ability to learn, reason, and analyze the fact that a process begins from infancy and progresses as the individual (Educational Psychology). Cognitive Development containsRead MorePiaget and Vygotsky1272 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Cognitive development is interpreted as the gradual orderly development of thinking, understanding and reasoning processes from birth to maturity. The aim of primary school is to build the knowledge and the skills children need to have for further cognitive development. Therefore, the constant development of coginition is very important to young children, because it gives them the basic understanding towards themselves and the world. As a result, in order to assist and support children’sRead MorePositive and Negative Psychological Effects of Television Viewing651 Words   |  3 Pagesstudies of the impact of TV viewing on cognitive performance, it may be argued that non-educational TV programs negatively affect cognitive performance skills of TV viewers, while educational programs affect viewers positively. This is especially the case with regard to children and adolescents since they are at the age where their cognitive performance abilities are growing fast. One recent study exploring the effects of television viewing on cognitive performance of college students found thatRead MorePsychology : Cognitive Psychology And Psychology980 Words   |  4 Pages A Cognitive Psychology 1064 Words 5 Pages Cognitive psychology began around 19th century. Different approaches have been used to trace the roots of psychology. It is also known that cognitive psychology was out numbered by behaviorism but later revived, bringing into being cognitive revolution. The paper discusses cognitive revolution in the history of cognitive psychology as the most influential part in the practice of modern psychology. Introduction A scientific branch of psychology that is